There are four.
Clean drinking water remains out of reach for more than 30 million people in the United States, according to a Time magazine report commissioned by the Pulitzer Center. A new study in the journal Risk Analysis identifies the four U.S. states with the highest number of tap water violations and evaluates potential policy approaches to improve access to safe water, particularly for underserved communities.
One proposed approach is the nationwide privatization of water systems. The U.S. government has expressed interest in this idea, as it could help reduce the significant expenses tied to maintaining public systems. Proponents argue that private companies can manage water infrastructure more efficiently than public entities, which could lead to quicker and more reliable service. Privatization could also allow governments to reallocate funds toward other public welfare initiatives.
However, critics caution that shifting water management to private entities might worsen issues of water scarcity. Without regulatory oversight, there’s concern that profit motives could take precedence over equitable access, potentially increasing costs and making safe water less accessible to low-income or marginalized groups who are already vulnerable.
“Privatization by itself isn’t a comprehensive fix,” said lead researcher Alex Segrè Cohen, an assistant professor specializing in science and risk communication at the University of Oregon. “Local factors—such as enforcement of regulations, community vulnerability, and local priorities—play a critical role in outcomes,” he explained in a press release.
To conduct the study, Segrè Cohen’s team used data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS), which includes 90% of the nation’s drinking water systems. The dataset covered system details (like name, location, and ownership) and tracked violations of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), which are issued when systems fail to meet federal safety standards.
In the study, privately managed systems were defined as public water distribution networks owned by private entities. Public systems included those run by governmental agencies or tribal authorities. According to the findings, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia reported the highest number of county-level violations. Notably, West Virginia recorded the most violations from a single system, which was publicly operated.
The research also highlighted states with the highest levels of “water injustice”—defined as unequal access to clean water disproportionately affecting low-income and minority communities. Mississippi, South Dakota, and Texas ranked highest in this category.
The study noted that communities with both high rates of privatized water systems and elevated water injustice experienced more concern and perceived risk regarding the safety and reliability of their drinking water.
“Violations and disparities in water access tend to concentrate in specific areas across the U.S.,” Segrè Cohen said. “These findings can help policymakers target enforcement, invest in infrastructure, and create policies that guarantee safe and affordable water, especially in communities facing the greatest risks.”
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